Mantrayana and Koto(dama/tama): a suggestive mapping (1.1)copyright 1994, 1995, Fred LittleInterstitial poetry by KukaiThe superficial similarities between the use of mantra in the Japanese Buddhist tradition and the use of koto(dama/tama) in the Shinto tradition are many. At the simplest level, both imply an inherent power of language. This, in itself, is not remarkable. Most religious traditions include the notion of sacred speech.What is notable is the way in which, despite the historically diverse interpretations given to the idea of koto(dama/tama), contemporary kotodama theory and contemporary kototama practice show significant evidence of having been shaped by Buddhist, particularly Shingon, concepts and practices. On one level, this is not surprising, given the many years of coexistence of Shinto and Buddhist practices in Japanese temples and shrines, whether under the rubric of honji suijaku, ryobu shinto, or some other syncretic system. In other respects, demonstration of this kind of mutual influence serves to deconstruct some of the more nationalist/racialist claims which have at times been advanced regarding the Japanese nation, the Japanese language, and the Japanese people, both positively and negatively. What distinguishes all such claims -- whether they are framed admiringly or pejoratively -- is the particularism with which they locate Japanese thought somewhere outside the global continuum. Recognizing mutual conditioning influences between Shingon Buddhism and Shinto in Japan is to place Japan within a larger continuum of Pan-Asian culture at the very minimum. This particular context -- that of the theoretical and practical relationship between mantra and koto(dama/tama) -- touches on the core concerns of much contemporary language theory, and by extension, our fundamental conception of consciousness. Kukai's language theory, as expounded in the *Shoji Jisso Gi* and the *Ungi Gi*, not only anticipates the insights of deconstructionism and the concerns of the Language Poets by a millennia, but it also skillfully resists the modern tendency to reduce the whole complicated business to a cheap and solipsistic parlor game. That he is a pivotal, and popular, cultural figure in Japanese history has profound implications for the way in which we view Kukai -- and the Japanese response to Kukai -- in global intellectual history. It would then, be quite a surprise if either mantra or kotodama/tama were easily distinguished or susceptible to quick and clear definition. Though mantra is often distinguished from dharani or vidya, the basis for the distinction is not immediately apparent. Yamasaki renders vidya as denoting "knowledge or learning" and connoting "incantation," and dharani as denoting "all-holding" and carrying the connotation of [verses used in] "controlling the senses and concentrating the mind." He proceeds to note that "Shingon uses the general term mantra to refer to all types of esoteric incantation." The temptation, then, is to distinguish dharani and vidya from mantra on the basis of the understanding of the user. In this view, mantra would be regarded as multi-layered, or oriented toward the establishment of correspondence between the multiple aspects of unitary reality, whereas vidya and dharani would be oriented toward the production of specific effects. The situation with regard to koto(dama/tama) is even less clear. The word koto(dama/tama) seems to predate the introduction of Chinese characters to Japan, and the subsequent choices of characters used to represent the word seem to suggest an archetypal grouping rather than a single, easily defineable concept. Koto has been written as ["word/language/speech" Nelson 4309] and as ["thing/matter" Nelson 272], while tama has been represented by [Nelson 2923, "spirit/jewel/jade"], [Nelson 5056 ], and [Nelson 5278]. In historical terms, this vagueness of meaning, accompanied by a very limited number of early references has permitted scholars to turn the word to a variety of disparate conceptual uses without fear of overt contradiction from the textual record. Iori Joko has identified 9 uses of koto(dama/tama) in Nara and Heian Era texts (see Appendix A), and while all of these uses are suggestive of a relationship between the divine and mundane functions of language, none can be considered definitive. Ms. Joko is, I believe quite rightly, critical of the tendency to narrowly construct koto(dama/tama) as "word-spirit" to the exclusion of other, more nuanced, understandings, as well as the practice of imposing contemporary understandings on historical usages of koto(dama/tama). As her review of the history of scholarly works treating the subject indicates, depending on one's inclination, one can see kotodama as representing a) a unique correspondence between (Japanese) words and that which they signify, b) a unique correspondence between the grammatical structure of (the Japanese) language and the structure of the world, c) the general blessing of the Gods which has been granted to (the Japanese) people, d) the notion that (Japanese or other) words are "alive" and have distinct souls, e) the quality of intentional ritual speech and action necessary to approach the divine, f) the use of intentional ritual speech to produce effects in the mundane world. While it should go without saying that the foregoing list is not exhaustive -- additional possibilities will appear in due order -- I would point out that a) a broad reading of the term "word-spirit" is inclusive of all of these understandings, and b) contemporary kototama practice aims precisely to deconstruct and reconstruct our mundane language usage, laying bare its warp and its weft. Through a comparison of specific practices within the Mikkyo and Shinto traditions and commentaries on those practices, we will see that even in practices which present themselves as representative of the non-Buddhist Japanese tradition, elements which are distinctly Buddhist do appear prominently. One example of this can be found in the Tsubaki Grand Shrine waterfall misogi ritual. In describing how he undertook this ritual, Rev. Yukitaka Yamamoto says: "I...decided...to discover the nature of the Shinto tradition I had inherited and what the life and work of a priest should be. I decided I must undertake kugyo, a kind of ascetic discipline aimed at steadily purifying the sould so that it comes closer to the life of the kami. I sought the solitude of the waterfall and the the soul and other rituals of preparation, I purified myself and entered the waterfall to commune with the kami. When I felt ready, I would then enter the old haiden, the outer worship hall, and sit in silence, contemplating the meaning of an old norito, words of ceremonial. In that way I performed chinkon or Shinto spiritual exercises." Though Reverend Yamamoto clearly identifies the ritual as a "Shinto spiritual exercise" it is worth pointing out that elsewhere in the volume he includes a map of the temple which indicates a Buddhist shrine within the temple precincts. This is not remarkable in itself, but in combination with the fuller description of the ritual (previously posted as Rowing Exercise--Long) the depth of the inter-relationship becomes clearer. Compare Yamamoto's instruction: "Place the left hand on your hip and your hand with two fingers extended in a gesture that resembles the Boy Scout Salute....with each invocation you cut the air in a sweeping gesture with the right hand...." and its association with Sarutahiko Okami, a fearless warrior deity, with Saso's description of the union with Acala in the Lotus Mandala meditation: "The meditator learns the saving compassion mantra of Acala, and the sword- and-scabbard mudra of the Pole Star, shared with the Taoist, Shinto, Shugendo, Yamabushi, and other esoteric movements in Asia. The thumb of left and right hand is pressed down over the fourth and fifth fingerxs, with the index and third (fire) fingers extended, like a sword. Yamamoto and Saso go further, noting that the use of the mudra is in the removal of "impurities" (Y) or "thoughts and desires" (S). Although some details of performance differ, and the specific words used to describe the effect of the meditation are in keeping with the respective philosophical orientations of Shinto and Buddhism, it seems clear that we are dealing with a shared practice. Shared practices can also be found in the spiritual system espoused (for taught would be overstating the case) by Morihei Ueshiba, founder of the art of Aikido. At the age of seven, Ueshiba was sent to Jizodera, a Shingon temple near Tanabe, in Wakayama prefecture, "to study the Confucian classics and Buddhist scriptures. He was enthralled by the miracle tales....of Kobo Daishi (the posthumous name give to Kukai, the progenitor of Shingon Buddhism in Japan)" The lingering influence of these early studies can be observed in his mature formulation: ichirei-shikon-sangen-hachiriki [one rule, four souls, three fundamentals, eight powers] which he represented in the form of a square, a circle, and a triangle. The associations of these "three fundamentals" are mineral, liquid, and fire respectively, which corresponds closely to earth, liquid and fire associated with the same three geometric elements in stupas such as that of Kobo Daishi on Mount Koya. Admittedly, there are two additional signifying elements in such stupas: the half-circle/lunar disc and the teardrop, associated with the wind/sky and space/void, respectively. But although he does not use the standard esoteric icongraphy, the complete sequence of associations if found in the "four souls" and "one-spirit" formulation: sachi-mitama, nigi-mitama, ara-mitama, kushi- mitama, and ichirei [ ] associated with earth, water, fire, heaven, and primordial void, in that order. {see appendix C}. Additionally, there are several ways in which the eight powers (represented graphically by the eight "sides" of the square, circle, and triangle) can be easily mapped into the buddhas and bodhisattvas at the heart of the Diamond and Matrix Mandala. There are also self-apparent differences between the "core" syllables of Diamond/Matrix mantra recitation and Ueshiba-ha practice, and it would be silly, at best, to try to establish a one-to-one correspondence between the two systems. A/Va/Ra/Ha/Ka is quite distinct from A/O/U/E/I. But it is my belief that the Ueshiba system should be regarded as an innovative reworking rather than a wholesale departure. For example, despite differences such as that noted above, Ueshiba's practice does employ the five-syllable phrase TA/KA/MA/HA/RA fairly prominently, as befits both its similarity to A/Va/Ra/Ha/Ka and its position in the Kojiki as the primordial "High Plain of Heaven." While it seems clear that Ueshiba insisted that all elements of his system have some kind of ancient textual authority in the native Japanese tradition, even where he uses that tradition, his use is often characterized by radical recastings, the single best example of which is his relocation of the syllable SU to the absolute center of the material realm. "There was no heaven, no earth, no universe, just empty space. In this vast emptiness, a single point suddenly manifest[ed] itself. From that point steam, smoke, and mist spiraled forth in a luminous sphere and the kototama SU was born. As SU expanded circularly up and down, left and right, nature began, clear and uncontaminated. Breath developed into life and sound appeared. SU is the "Word" mentioned in the Christian Bible." In his commentary, Stevens explains that: "SU is held to be a more likely candidate because it represents the actual act of breathing, not merely the act of opening the mouth like A . . . .as SU continued to expand the kototama U appeared. Simultaneously, U spun into the kototama YU and MU and extended out into the kototama A-O-U-E-I. The reference to the Christian Bible, though initially startling, is of a piece with Ueshiba's belief that his system was, more than a particular doctrine, a set of structural principles found in all "true" religions. This belief in the complementarity of Shinto and Christianity is found in the writings of Reverend Yamamoto, and Nakazono Sensei, referenced herein, and in Dr. Jigohei Tanaka's pamphlet Ko-Shinto and Globe State, which primarily concerns itself with justifying the institution of the royal family in Japan. Of course, given the limited number of sounds, particularly vowels, which the human mouth is capable of producing, some low order correspondences are inevitable in systems of this type. Likewise, the tendency toward numerical categorization is so ubiquitous in Asian cultures that one might be able to draw the same sorts of parallels between 9th Century Buddhist doctrine and 20th Century governmental propaganda campaigns in the People's Republic of China. But once we move into categories of two digits, the likelihood of a chance correlation is considerably diminished. Just such a category is found in Masahilo Nakazono's analysis of the underlying structure of kototama practice, Inochi: The Book of Life. Nakazono's presentation and analysis of the practice and underpinnings of kototama is considerably more systematic than the fragments of Ueshiba's lectures and writings which Stevens has thus far assembled. For the most part, Nakazono's presentation coincides with the extant fragments. Inasmuch as Nakazono was one of Ueshiba's foremost students, this is to be expected; but there appear to be significant variances as well. In particular, while Ueshiba's teachings appear to be predicated on the idea of concurrent manifestation of kototama and the physical universe we inhabit, Nakazono stresses that understanding the kototama in the sequence in which they first manifest themselves in the physical realm will result in an understanding which is conditioned by and limited to the physical realm. While his instructions for practice are substantially the same, as a matter of analysis, he presents the kototama as divided into "mother-sounds" (U-A-O-E) and "half-mother sounds" (WU-WA- WO-WE) which, under the influence of the "parental-sounds" (I- WI) interact with their associated "father-rhythms," both centrifugal (T-K-S-H) and centripetal (Y-M-N-L), generating the kana of the Japanese syllabary. Insofar as WU is nothing more or less than sound generated by the gap between U and a second iteration of U, it is not counted. This leaves seventeen fundamental building blocks which Nakazono refers to as "the seventeen hidden gods." Pervading all aspects of the action of these "seventeen hidden gods," in Nakazono's understanding, is the principle of "Ana-Mana- Kana." Ana is the source of the life rhythm of phenomena of the a priori universe...Ana manifests as the vibration of the human brain, Mana...The vibration of Mana, the rhythm itself coming out as sound , is Kana, the word of God.....When Kana and Mana exactly mesh, that is the moment we grasp the truth. Grasping the truth means the a priori universe manifests exactly, through the order of Ana-Mana- Kana, as human capacity. At that moment of grasping the perfect truth, the human being.....says, 'Yes! Good!" Although he explicitly identifies Kana with sound, it is difficult to overlook the denotative meaning of the word: syllabary, more specifically the written syllabary. The jump to Kukai's Shoji Jisso Gi is a short one: Ana is reality, Mana is vibration, Kana is letter. Nakazono repeatedly makes the point that to study kototama is to practice returning to pure consciousness....we should face the objective phenomenal world as a white piece of paper, with no name there.....The moment to moment time and place of our inner sense is pure consciousness itself....We should face the sun, moon, stars, mountains, rivers, grass, trees -- all of these phenomena -- with a white paper mind. And we should practice giving them a new name. Our basic human consciousness is pure like but.....there are three different principles of action. He then identifies "three different principles of action" (Amatsu Kanagi, Amatsu Sugaso, and Amatsu Futonorito) with particular arrangements of the "seventeen hidden gods"and the "child-sounds" (the balance of the basic 50 syllables of Japanese language) and catalogues (See *Inochi* for details) specific sensory, motor, and conceptual aspects of human existence that can be correlated with those "seventeen hidden gods" and "child sounds." In combination with his emphasis on the "purity" of human consciousness and the use of kototama to penetrate to the pure desire that it contains, it is again, difficult to escape the correlation of his "seventeen hidden gods" with the seventeen purifying desire" deities of the upper-right court of the Diamond Mandala. So what? It would be very simple to say, in chorus with Fritz Staal, that: ...nothing is sacrosanct about such interpretations. They are the predictable professional views of philosophers, theologians, priests, and exegetes all over the world. They need not be taken seriously as possible explanations, because they themselves stand in need of an explanation. They do not throw any light on the nature of mantras, for example. Of course, Staal answers his ow""n question in two very significant ways. First he suggests that: "All we can do in the present context is emphasize that mantras cannobe understood unless we take their musical character into account. This explains in turn why mantras cannot be explained wholly or, perhaps, even partly in terms of language." And later: "It appears likely that mantras are not merely independent of language in a conceptual of logical sense, but that they predate language in the development of man in a chronological sense." And lastly: "Another fact may have some bearing on this matter and may be related to the similarities among language, mantras, and bird songs: Birds, like humans, have neural lateralization." Which brings us to the pivotal work of Dr. Manfred Clynes, who opens his book Sentics with these observations (for further information on the technical basis of Dr. Clynes observations, please consult Appendix F) ...there is a definite organization of cells in various layers of the brain structured to process visual information according to specific data processing designs. Independently, we found that in humans for every distinct quality of the visual field, be it color or form, there was a definite physiologic response pattern measured as the electric activity of various parts of the brain. We could say there was a clear one-to-one-to-one correspondence between the visual stimulus, the observations of the space-time patterns of the electric brain response, and what was perceived by the viewer. That is, the quality of red has a distinct physiologic code representation in the brain that displays crucial similarities across all people.
The objects of sight are colors, formsThese unique qualities or entities do not exist in isolation, however, but are in relationship with other brain functions. In particular, there is a class of qualities which is inherently linked to the motor system, so that its uniqueness is complete only with the inclusion of the dynamics of the motor system as an integral part of their spatio-temporal existence (emphasis mine). It is because of this inherent link to the motor system that these qualities can be communicated. This class of qualities is referred to commonly as emotions...We shall use the term [sentic] to denote the brain state and its corresponding experience generally associated with the word "emotion."The expressive aspect of the sentic state is named "essentic form" regarding which Clynes asserts:
Of them are conditioned and unconditioned aspectsTo see whether the specific essentic forms we discovered were universal to human nature we carried out studies in several different cultures. ...In a pilot study we sought to measure essentic form in a remote Mexican village....We did learn ....the importance of adequately translating the key words denoting the sentic states. If these words are imperfectly translated, then observed differences are ambiguous....significant "cultural" differences appeared in that essentic form only when no really adequate word could be found in translation.
They delude some and induce others to attain enlightenmentWe wanted to concentrate on the old Japanese culture, so we studied mainly a group of Zen Buddhist monks and practitioners in Kyoto....In their daily lives it seems most Japanese subjects were constrained by a severely limited range of emotional expression, yet they seemed to be remarkably uninhibited in their ability to produce essentic form with our method. Some subjects enthusiastically expressed their sense of discovery of these forms in themselves, and found it a liberating experience. Others, with considerable experience of Zen, provided restrained yet highly characteristic collections of essentic forms. These subjects involved thir bodies less in physiologic emotional reactions and appeared to concentrate more on the mental enjoyment of the sentic state idiologs....The result: Differences between individuals of different cultures turned out to be no greater than those within a group from a single culture.
ConclusionsIn the foregoing I have been guided by Kukai in the matter of regarding thought (or emotional states), or mudra (or gesture) , and mantra (or sound), as perceptually variant aspects of common phenomena, thus the illustrations of commonality of ritual gesture are treated as equivalent to commonality of liturgy. Although most kotodama scholarship seems to concern itself with narrowly drawn literary, historical, or anthropological questions, as I stated initially, the most significant aspect of Kukai's theory of signs (at least in the present context) is its relationship to our fundamental understanding of the relationship between signs such as language or gesture and consciousness itself.Contemporary kototama practice provides us with a window into the historical diffusion of Kukai's ideas into the broader culture, and the process by which his conceptualization has been adapted and nativized as an expression of Shinto. Moreover, kototama practice in the context of the international growth of Aikido represents the largest single axis of transmission of this body of knowledge (albeit in fragmented form) since Kukai's initial formulation. It is particularly appropriate in light of the dynamic relationship between practice and theory in Esoteric Buddhism that we look at this form of mantra/koto(dama/tama) study and practice as it moves beyond the confines of Japan and the Japanese interaction between Buddhism and Shinto. While each has developed an elaborate system of correspondences which may be perceived in the relationship between reality, sound, and letter, Kukai, Ueshiba, and Nakazono all condition those correspondences with implicit and explicit cautions that these are not concrete structures or Platonic categories, but rather are "conditioned and unconditioned aspects," in Kukai's phrase. The correspondences I have indicated among these systems faintly indicate a path through the matrix of theory and practice. It is but one among many. Staal's speculation on and Clyne's apparent experimental confirmation of the existence of deep structures of communicative sign production and perception below the level of conscious manipulation of language are of a piece with Kukai's express insights regarding the inter-relationship between "pure consciousness" and "conditioned perception." Similarly, it is such an insight, or awakening, which is the stated goal of the practices espoused by Ueshiba, Nakazono, and Stephens. To the extent that these similarities are not the result of a process of doctrinal dissemination and historical causality, in the light of Clynes' work, we must conclude that they are the result of study and experimention concerning common manifestations of consciousness, and are, thus, none other than common manifestations of consciousness, which is, after all, the point.
Appendix A
Date Text Author
Form
ca. 1170 Kiyosuke ason shu Fujiwara-no-Kiyosuke Waka
1103 Horikawa-in hyakushu uta Minamoto-no-Toshiyori Waka
ca. 1100 Okagami Anonymous Prose
ca. 1000 Kamo-no-Yasunori no musume shu No personalname given Prose
ca. 898 Okagami Emperor Daigo Waka
849 Shoku Nihon koki Monks of Kofukuji Choka
733 Manyoshu V-894 Yamanoue-no-Okura Choka
ca. 702 Manyoshu XIII-3253-3254 Anonymous Choka /Hanka
Unknown Manyoshu XI-2506 Anonymous Tanka
Appendix DSentic State A state of emotion; a state encompassing a quality of experience linked with the motor system in a unique way that makes it capable of specific communicative expression.Essentic form The form that has developed biologically for the communication of a specific emotion state or quality. It is a spatio- temporal form, with a clear beginning and end, that can be expressed by various motor outputs: a smile, a gesture, the tone of voice, etc. In each case it is the essentic form that carries the emotional message as a precise dynamic form. It is the biological arc that bridges the isolation between individuals. Essentic forms are produced and sensed by symbiotically developed nervous system programs. They also serve as the emotion communication elements in music and art.
Biologic Design Principles for Sentic Communication
Appendix FOn the Measurement of Essentic Form"In order to arive at this [standardization of essentic form], let us consider that a sentic state can be expressed in a variety of modes-- from tone of voice to gestures using many different parts of the body. This is the sentic principle of equivalence, and if valid, it should allow us to select an arbitrary motor output of sufficient degrees of freedom for the measurement of essentic form. A mode....that seems to fulfill the requirements is the transient pressure of a finger....The dynamic pressure of a single finger on a finger rest has the possibility of being readily repeatable, and can be easily measured....It was necessary....to measure not only the amount of the momentary pressure but the angle of its direction. This is done with two pressure transducers, one measuring the vertical component of pressure and the other the horizontal component....In practice, the horizontal and vertical components of pressure [in time] are recorded as separate curves and the shape of these curves constitute the visual representation (emphasis in original) of essentic form." (See diagram)
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As noted above, any attempt
to deny mutual influence and assert the existence of a "pure" form of
either Shinto or Shingon is dubious, at best, and this lack of purity
extends to key concepts (such as mantra and kototama) within each system.
Despite the fact that there have been several reactions against the "foreign
influence" of Buddhism in Japan, for the most part, the syncretic tendencies
of Buddhism and the essentially intuitive character of much Shinto tend
to mediate the conflict that might otherwise result. As Reverend Yamamoto
of Tsubaki Grand Shrine puts it: "The relationship is long and complicated
but somehow over the centuries both managed to work out a relationship
that involved arguments as well as compromise.....No matter the era, no
single Buddhist leader or founder of a Buddhist Sect ever overlooked the
existence of Shinto."